English Grammar, Simple Punctuation

Punctuation means making points. It means putting the right kind of points in the right place so as to mark the exact length and meaning of sentences. Proper punctuation is essential in written English to enable the reader to understand what it is you are trying to say. Spacing with punctuation is also important to make your writing readable. Here are some English punctuation rules.

Common Punctuation Marks


. full stop (period USA)
! exclamation mark
? question mark , comma
: colon
; semi colon

' apostrophe
" " quotation marks
- hyphen



Apostrophes [']
Apostrophes next to the letter ('s) indicate possession or belonging. No space is needed before or after the apostrophe.
For example:-

This is Lynne's web site.

They are also used to show missing letters in shortened words, especially in informal writing. No space is needed before or after the apostrophe.
For example:-

It's a nice day today, isn't it? I've got an idea. Let's go out.

Regular Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparatives and Superlatives are special forms of adjectives. They are used to compare two or more things. Generally, comparatives are formed using -er and superlatives are formed using -est. This page will explain the rules for forming regular comparatives and superlatives, and also show some basic ways of using them.


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1. Forming regular comparatives and superlatives
How these forms are created depends on how many syllables there are in the adjective. Syllables are like “sound beats”. For instance, “sing” contains one syllable, but “singing” contains two — sing and ing. Here are the rules:

Adjective form Comparative Superlative
Only one syllable, ending in E. Examples: wide, fine, cute Add -r: wider, finer, cuter Add -st: widest, finest, cutest
Only one syllable, with one vowel and one consonant at the end. Examples: hot, big, fat Double the consonant, and add -er: hotter, bigger, fatter Double the consonant, and add -est: hottest, biggest, fattest
Only one syllable, with more than one vowel or more than one consonant at the end. Examples: light, neat, fast Add -er: lighter, neater, faster Add -est: lightest, neatest, fastest
Two syllables, ending in Y. Examples: happy, silly, lonely Change y to i, then add -er: happier, sillier, lonelier Change y to i, then add -est: happiest, silliest, loneliest
Two syllables or more, not ending in Y. Examples: modern, interesting, beautiful Use “more” before the adjective: more modern, more interesting, more beautiful Use “most” before the adjective: most modern, most interesting, most beautiful

2. How to use comparatives and superlatives
Comparatives Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences with “than”, or you can use a conjunction like “but”.

Jiro is taller than Yukio.
Yukio is tall, but Jiro is taller.

Superlatives Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use “the”, because there is only one superlative.

Masami is the tallest in the class.
Yukio is tall, and Jiro is taller, but Masami is the tallest.

English Grammar Adjetives

Adjectives describe or give information about nouns or pronouns.

For example:-

The grey dog barked. (The adjective grey describes the noun "dog".)

The good news is that the form of an adjective does not change. It does not matter if the noun being modified is male or female, singular or plural, subject or object.

Some adjectives give us factual information about the noun - age, size colour etc (fact adjectives - can't be argued with). Some adjectives show what somebody thinks about something or somebody - nice, horrid, beautiful etc (opinion adjectives - not everyone may agree).

If you are asked questions with which, whose, what kind, or how many, you need an adjective to be able to answer.

There are different types of adjectives in the English language:

Numeric: six, one hundred and one
Quantitative: more, all, some, half, more than enough
Qualitative: colour, size, smell etc.
Possessive: my, his, their, your
Interrogative: which, whose, what
Demonstrative: this, that, those, these

Holiday Traditions of Mexico

"La Posadas," the remarkable buildup to Christmas Eve, is perhaps the most delightful and unique Mexican tradition. Beginning December 16th, it commemorates the events in the journey of Mary and Joseph from Nazareth to Bethlehem.

After dark, each night of the "Posada," a procession begins led by two children. The children carry a small pine-decorated platform bearing replicas of Joseph and Mary riding a burro. Other members of the company, all with lighted long slender candles, sing the "Litany of the Virgin" as they approach the door of the house assigned to the first "Posada." Together they chant an old traditional song and awaken the mast of the house to ask lodging for Mary. Those within the house threaten the company with beatings unless they move on. Again, the company pleads for admittance. When the owner of the house finally learns who his guests are, he jubilantly throws open the doors and bids them welcome. All kneel around the manger scene or "Nacimiento" and offer songs of welcome, Ave Marias and a prayer.

Now it's time of the "Pinata," refreshments and dancing. The "Pinata" is a pottery (or paper) container, brightly decorated and filled with candy and toys. It is hung from he ceiling or a tree. One by one, the children are blindfolded, turned around and instructed to strike the Pinata with a stick. Usually several attempts are made before the container is broken. Of course, when that happens, there is an explosion of goodies and a scattering of children.

On Christmas Eve another verse is added to the Ave Marias, telling the Virgin Mary that the desired night has come. Small children dressed as shepherds stand on either side of the nativity scene while members of the company kneel and sing a litany, after which the Christ Child is lulled to sleep with the cradle song, "El Rorro" (Babe in Arms).

At midnight the birth of Christ is announced with fireworks, ringing bells and blowing whistles. Devout worshipers surge into churches to attend the famous "Misa de Gallo" or "Mass of the Rooster." Following Mass, families return home for a tremendous dinner of traditional Mexican foods. The dishes vary with the different regions. However, somewhat common are the ,"tamales," rice, rellenos, "atole" (a sweet traditional drink) and "menudo," which is said to be more sobering than strong coffee.

Christmas Day has no special celebration though many have adopted the American style Christmas with a Christmas tree and Santa Claus.

Quebec Winter Carnival

The Quebec Winter Carnival (or Carnaval de Quebec) is an annual winter carnival that takes place in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. The festival typically starts on the first Friday of January (or Jan. 6th) and continues for 17 days, coinciding with Mardi Gras celebrations in other regions of the world. With close to one million participants, it has grown to become the largest winter celebration in the world, attracting both Anglophone and Francophone tourists like.

GLOSSARY

TYPICALLY: TÌPICA

LARGEST:MAS LARGO

FIRST:PRIMERO

Easter in Guatemala

Easter is the most important celebration in Guatemala, a country with strong Christian traditions. The entire country waits anxiously for this time of year to show it’s devotion and to participate in the Easter events. The celebrations are a fusion of Mayan and Spanish traditions that remark the sorrow of the Christ’s passion, death and resurrection.
During Easter, Guatemala is filled with smells of all kind. The gastronomy prepared just for the holy week include Spanish fish dishes, vegetables with vinegar, desserts made with bread and honey and fresh beverages of hibiscus or rice. All the Guatemalan food prepared in Easter has a meaning, from the sorrow and mourning of Christ death to the joy of resurrection.
Even the trees and flowers seem glad to be in Easter. The warm weather of the season makes the flowers bloom, the whole country is full of colors everywhere. The most important traditions during the Easter’s 40 days are the floats, a tradition brought to Guatemala from Andalucia, Spain.
The processions are held throughout the country and thousands of people participates in them, which makes it the biggest Easter celebration of the world. The devotion of the Guatemalan people is also represented inside the churches, where the “huertos” are made for Jesus. These are sawdust carpets decorated with flowers and fruits.

GLOSSARY
STRONG: FUERTE
ENTIRE: ENTERO
ANXIOUSLY: ANSIOSA
EVERYWHERE: DONDEQUIERA, EN TODAS PARTES.

Akemashite, Omedeto Gozaimasu!

Preparing for the New Year Beginning mid-December, greeting cards, nengajo, are collected at the post office but they will not be delivered until New Year's Day when an army of specially hired students will help with the huge task.
Following Shinto tradition, homes are thoroughly cleaned before the New Year. Special food, osechi ryori, is prepared in the days before January 1 so everyone can enjoy New Year's Day together. At night on New Year's eve, many people go to a Buddhist temple to take part in the tolling of the temple bell 108 times. This is a sacred number for Buddhists and it is part of a ceremony that allows the year to begin free of evil.
On New Year's Day Most Japanese families go to a shrine or temple on January 1, to pray for good health and prosperity in the coming year. It is customary to pay a courtesy call to customers, superiors, and others with whom you have a special relationship, bringing them New Year's greetings. On this day, people say, "Akemashite, Omedeto Gozaimasu!" meaning "Happy New Year!" In the evening, traditional pastimes are playing New Year's card games such as karuta and hyakunin isshu.

GLOSSARY
Preparing :Preparando
Delivered: Entregado
Following:Despues
Thoroughly: A fondo
Sacred: Sagrado

Rumba and Guaguanco

Typical of the transculturation process that took place in Cuba, in the 19th Century, a mixture of black people music with that of Spanish origin occurred. Rumba evolved in the western part of the country, shaped by three fundamental variants: Yambu, and Columbia in the rural areas of Matanzas and Guaguanco in Havana City. It features a dance without limitations to be performed but it is mainly a black people dance. Guaguanco is the most complicated in its music and in its lyrics. Although it can be paradoxical, its lyrics are completely in Spanish language without any African or marginal expressions. Guaguanco tempo is slightly slower than that of the Columbia and faster than Yambu. Those who dance Guaguanco move to the rhythm of the percussion instruments surrounded by a chorus that is conducted by a soloist and make a choreography highly charged with eroticism. Despite being a black people rhythm, Guaguanco has Spanish influences in their lyrics, especially, its flamenco and decima expressions.

GLOSSARY

Mixture: Mezcla

Western: Occidental

Shaped: Formado

Without: Sin

Mainly: Principalmente

Although: Aunque

Traditions in Alaska

Traditions are the handing down orally of stories, beliefs, customs, etc. from generation to generation. Traditions are often a long-established custom or practice that has the effect of an unwritten law. Traditions are very important to the Natives of Alaska. They believed that the stories told to them by their ancestors explained why things are the way they are, and how things came to be. Some stories were believed to be real, while others held more as a myth.
Traditions are a part of everyone's life, whether it be in your family's belief to have your girlfriend/boyfriend meet your parents, or like the Natives Athabascan's belief of attending a Stick Dance, which is forbidden to talk about for fear spirits would come back and haunt you. There are many stories and traditions that Alaska's Native tribes believe in. Here is a small representation of those stories.

GLOSSARY

HANDING DOWN: IMPOSICION

ORALLY: ORALMETE

UNWRITTEN: NO ESCRITO

EXPLAINED: EXPLICARON

TOLD: DICHO

BELIEF: CREENCIA

Traditions in Roma

Romani traditions play an important role in the life of the family. Roma attach very much importance to the preservation of traditions as a way of defining Roma own identity; however Roma traditions should not be an obstacle to modernization: an important challenge young European Roma are dealing with is to decide which Romani traditions to preserve and carry forward into the future, and which to leave behind. The important thing is to maintain the Roma identity and to protect the existence of the Roma culture.Romani culture – the Rromanipen as the religion of the Roma. The Rromanipen (the Roma culture) is of greater importance for the Roma than cultures usually have for the corresponding communities. This is due to the fact that the Roma culture has developed as the survival strategy of the Roma, and that nowadays it still plays a crucial role in regulating the everyday life of the Roma as well as their relations inside and outside the community.A number of concepts in the Roma culture are quite similar to the Eastern (oriental) ones and therefore are substantially different from the corresponding Western concepts. For example:The Notion of “Purity”:The Roma notion of purity is the oriental one, meaning that it concerns not only physical but also spiritual cleanliness. This concept and its real implications not only in the everyday life of Roma and the way they take care of their houses but also on some very important customs related to childbirths, death and funerals, etc. Finally it also affects intergenerational relations as well as relations between Roma men and women, as well as the perception of the elderly and children.

The Historical Regata

The Historical Regata is one of the most picturesque and moving tradition festivities of Venice, attracting Venetians and tourists every year.
An historical procession of 16th century style boats, headed by the famous Bucintoro, symbol of the Serenissima, goes through the Grand Canal, to commemorate the welcome given to Caterina Cornaro, wife of the King of Cyprus, in 1489, after she renounced her throne in favour of Venice.After the procession comes the competition, with thousands of spectators participating every year, crowded along the banks, in the floating stands, or even better in one of the boats moored along the Grand Canal, with their shouts of encouragement, while the multi-coloured boats speed past.The earliest historical evidence of the regata dates from the second half of the 13th Century, during the festa delle Marie. However, but it is probable that the competition was already popular at that time: Venice was essentially a sea city and reserves of expert oarsmen were always a prime necessity.The modern regata born in 1841, when their organization was given to the municipality of Venice, and after 1866, when Venice became part of the Italy kingdom, this tradition became an event to celebrate the glorious past of the Serenissima.In 1899 the event was named Regata Storica, by the ancient mayor, Filippo Grimani. Every year, the first sunday of september, takes place several competitions with boats. Many different types of boats take part in the Regata Storica: the "gondolino", the "caorlina", the "mascareta", the "pupparin", and, of course, the gondola, the Venetian boat par excellence.The boats start from Sant'Elena, go through the Grand Canal, until the railway station of Santa Lucia. The prize-giving takes place in front of Ca' Foscari palace.

GLOSSARY

Railway: Ferrocaril

Crowded: Concurrido

Traditiions in Paris.

France is home to some of the most influential writers and thinkers of the continent: Descartes and Pascal in the seventeenth century, Rousseau and Voltaire in the eighteenth century, Balzac, Flaubert and Baudelaire in the nineteenth and Sartre and Camus in the twentieth century. Over the past two centuries has given the art world the works of Renoir, Monet, Cézanne, Gauguin, Matisse and Braque, among others. French cuisine is one of the finest in Europe, the kitchen and good food are part of the culture and lifestyle of the French.

Discovering Lake Geneva Traditions

The Traditional Museum and the Lake Geneva boats at the Château de St. Gingolph invite you to explore the thousands of existing traditions surrounding the lake. St. Gingolph: The Traditional Museum and the Lake Geneva boats at the Château de St. Gingolph invite you to explore the thousands of existing traditions surrounding the lake.

Brazilian Carnival

The Brazilian Carnival, properly spelled Carnaval in Portugese, is an annual festival in Brazil held four days before Ash Wednesday. On certain days of Lent, Roman Catholics and some other Christians traditionally abstained from the consumption of meat and poultry—hence the term "carnival," from carnelevare, "to remove (literally, "raise") meat." Carnival celebrations are believed to have roots in the pagan festival of Saturnalia, which, adapted to Christianity, became a farewell to sex in a season of religious discipline to practice repentance and prepare for Christ's death and resurrection.
Brazilian Carnival exhibits some differences from its European counterparts, having mixed African, Native, German and Euro elements. Furthermore, rhythm, participation, and costume vary from one region of Brazil to another. For example, in the southeastern cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, organized parades led by samba schools vie for prizes on the "sambodromo" open stage. Only samba-school affiliates participate in the shows. Smaller cities often have no public events but promote balls in recreational clubs.

Spring Party in China Town

The China Town in Havana adds itself this month to the Spring Party or Lunar New Year, the most important traditional celebration in continental China as well as in the communities all over the world. As part of the celebration at homes, commercial establishments and societies there will be activities that begin fifteen days before the party and will last for fifteen days more, after the coming of the year.
On this occasion, the decoration is very special, because there are ornaments made from cut out papers, Chinese lamps and spring diptych. These are placed at the doors in order to scare bad spirits away; they are a sort of talisman with two phrases of good luck written in red paper.
There are several legends surrounding the Spring Party or the Lunar New Year such as the one of the Jade Emperor, which gave way to the Chinese Horoscope of the twelve animals and that of the nian that means year in Chinese language. There is also the legend of the wild goose that gave way to the Lamp Party, the highpoint of the festivities at the Lunar New Year.

TRADITIONS OF WORLD